The Seventh Tohoku Conference on Global Japanese Studies
Bokjang as Collective Assemblages: Reconstructing the Material Histories of Korean Buddhist Sculpture
LEE Seunghye
Bokjang (pokchang 腹蔵) refers both to the consecration ritual of Buddhist images and to the material remains retrieved from the inner recesses of Korean Buddhist sculptures. Established in the 12th and 13th centuries under Goryeo 高麗 (918–1392), the bokjang ritual continues to be performed today as a living tradition whenever new Buddhist images are dedicated or old ones are repaired. Functioning as the symbolic heart of the Buddha, the main container, known as the “eight-petaled container” (palyeop tong 八葉筒) in the Goryeo period, anchors the entire deposit. Apart from the main container, a bokjang deposit typically includes votive texts and inscriptions, Buddhist texts and illuminated sutras, printed dhāraṇīs and maṇḍalas, as well as textiles and used clothing. Owing to this highly inclusive nature, bokjang materials have attracted scholars from art history, medieval history, bibliography, Buddhist studies, and textile studies, each focusing on particular aspects of these deposits. Building on previous studies, this talk proposes to understand bokjang as a form of collective and material assemblage. While the internal contents of the eight-petaled container tend to exhibit remarkable consistency across Goryeo examples, the objects placed outside the container vary significantly from one sculpture to another. By analyzing the composition and symbolic meaning of both internal and external components of the eight-petaled container, this talk explores how these diverse elements together constituted a complex collective entity. Furthermore, this presentation compares bokjang materials with contemporary relic deposits enshrined in pagodas. The comparison highlights what makes bokjang distinctive as a material assemblage and sheds light on its unique ritual logic and historical development within the broader landscape of Goryeo Buddhist practice. By so doing, the paper aims to reconstruct the material histories of Korean Buddhist sculpture and reconsider the ritual, material, and historical implications of bokjang within the Goryeo Buddhist world.
Ken SHIMIZU
The Shōsōin treasures are centered on the beloved possessions of Emperor Shōmu, to which items from the Office for the Construction of Tōdaiji and treasures belonging to Tōdaiji Temple were subsequently added and handed down to the present day. This presentation reexamines the process by which the Shōsōin collection was formed and provides an overview of its transmission from its origins to the present. By considering the treasures as a collective whole, it seeks to clarify their significance and distinctive characteristics.
The Ideology of Dedicated Objects: Buddhist Statues and Reliquary Pagodas in the Northern Song, Liao, and Japan
Ryusaku NAGAOKA
Buddhist statues and reliquary pagodas of the Northern Song dynasty enshrined both the Buddha’s relics and offerings donated by patrons. The set of deposited objects placed within the Seiryo-ji Sakyamuni statue—created in Taizhou in 985 (the second year of Yongxi) by the Todaiji monk Chonen together with local residents—follows Northern Song conventions while also exhibiting uniquely esoteric characteristics. In contrast, the Sakyamuni statue of the Yingxian Timber Pagoda and the contents deposited in the Chaoyang North Pagoda each illustrate the distinctive modes of deposition found in Liao Buddhist statues and reliquary pagodas.
In this presentation, I will compare the deposited objects in Northern Song and Liao Buddhist statues and reliquary pagodas with those found in Japanese Buddhist statues, and consider the ideological characteristics evident in each tradition.
In this presentation, I will compare the deposited objects in Northern Song and Liao Buddhist statues and reliquary pagodas with those found in Japanese Buddhist statues, and consider the ideological characteristics evident in each tradition.
Cheng-Yu CHOU
二十一世紀に入り、多くの社会で生活水準は向上したように見える一方、1980年代以降、富の格差は拡大傾向にある。この格差拡大に対処する手段として、富裕層への増税を通じた所得再分配がしばしば提示されている。しかし、租税は個人の所有権ないし自由に介入する制度であり、いかなる課税が正当化され得るのかという問いは、法哲学・政治哲学における根本問題を構成する。本稿は、租税正当化の根拠を、個人・国家・モノ（資源）の三要素の関係から再構成することを目的とする。具体的には、まずロック（John Locke）とヘーゲル（G. W. F. Hegel）という古典的所有権理論を比較し、その理論の射程と限界を検討する。次に、ヒレル・スタイナー（Hillel Steiner）の「権利の共存可能性（compossibility）」の概念を援用し、現代社会が直面する資源の有限性を踏まえつつ、再分配課税の基準を提示する。結論として、再分配課税は無条件の否定と無制限の容認のいずれも正当化されない。その正当化は、当該権利およびその権利を実現するための資源の性質に基づき、平等な手続によって判断されるべきである。
今日、租税は公共目的のための歳入として理解されているが、このような理解は歴史的にみれば近代以降に確立したものである。封建期において租税は領主への地代的給付として機能していたが、近代以降は、国家が自ら財産を持たない無産国家として、戦争や天災など「共同的危機」に対応するための財源として租税が制度化された。こうして租税は恒常的財源として制度化され、公共福祉や社会政策への用途が拡張された。その結果、政府規模は拡大し、個人の自由や所有権との間に新たな緊張関係が生まれることとなった。このように、租税による再分配は可能ではあるものの、その限界および正当化根拠はなお明確化される必要がある。
納税義務に関する理論は大きく二つに大別される。第一に、利益説において租税は、国家が社会契約に基づいて固有権の保障への対価として理解される。利益説では、租税は受益に応じた対価とされるため、比例税や定額税が正当化される傾向にある。しかし、生命の保障を超えるような水準の再分配を利益説から正当化することは困難である。そもそも利益説は、社会契約への同意の実効性や同意欠如の問題を含め、その基礎的前提が十分に説明されていないとの批判を受けている。第二に、義務説において租税は、市民が国家の存続と発展に対する義務を履行するための手段と位置づけられ、累進課税もその枠組みの下で正当化される。こうした市民義務に基づけば、国家の道徳的地位を高め、再分配を含む広汎な公共支出を正当化することが可能となる。しかし、国家が普遍的平等の促進義務を負う根拠を改めて問うと、その説明は循環論法に陥らざるを得ない。
両説は租税の基礎を一定程度説明しているものの、再分配の範囲と限界を規定するための規範的基準を欠如している。というのも、両説に依拠する所有権論は、一方がモノ的側面に、他方が人的側面に偏るという理論的偏向を内包しているからである。ロックの所有権論は、労働による価値創造を人間の使命とし、個人の最低限の生存保障を超える積極的再分配を正当化する理論的根拠は乏しい。一方でヘーゲルの所有権論は、人格の自己実現を所有権の目的とするため、最低限の生存権を超える積極的再分配を肯定しうる。しかし、モノいわゆる資源は本質的に有限であり、その現実の制約を無視した再分配を構想することは理論的にはともかく、実践的には成立し得ない。
以上の点を踏まえると、スタイナーの権利論における「権利の共存可能性」は両説の限界を補う理論的手がかりとして位置づけられる。スタイナーは、各個人に排他的領域（exclusive domain）が割り当てられ、それらが相互に干渉せず並立しうることを権利実現の条件でと捉える。また、権利の行使には一定の資源が不可欠である以上、必要資源を確保できない場合、その権利は実質的に実現されず、保護の欠如または権利侵害の状態に陥る。スタイナー権利論の意義は、権利の成立条件を資源配分という現実的制約に結び付けて論じた点にある。このように、租税による再分配を論じる際には、その実現可能性を正当化の重要な構成要素として位置づけなければならない。
スタイナー権利論は現実的な条件を取り込んでいるものの、資源の有限性については依然として検討が不十分である。そこで本稿は、再分配の妥当性を検討する際の三つの基準を提示することを試みる。第一は資源の希少性である。食料や居住用地など不可欠かつ有限な資源は再分配の優先度が高い。第二は資源の代替可能性である。ある権利の実現に代替的資源が確保可能であるならば、当該権利のための再分配の必要性は相対的に低減する。第三は権利の性質である。例えば、人としての尊厳ある生存を維持するために最低限の権利については、再分配の必要性が高く、その性質いかんによっては国家の再分配義務を構成しうる。
こうした「尊厳ある生存権」、「最低限の権利」の範囲は、時代や風土により共同体間で異なりうるものの、当該共同体内においてはその範囲が構成員に等しく帰属する。さらに、その範囲を決定するプロセスは民主的かつ平等的でなければならず、本稿ではこれを「手続的価値の共有（sharing of procedural values）」と呼ぶ。これは単なる形式的民主主義にとどまらず、すべての構成員が等しく参加し意思表明を行うための実質的条件を要求する概念である。このプロセスこそが納税義務正当化の核心であり、再分配目的の租税もまた、このプロセスを経て初めて正当化される。また、租税による再分配が個々人の参加能力を向上させるのであれば、その再分配は手続的平等を支える機能を果たしうる。このように、本稿は、個人がモノ・資源配分の過程においてより能動的になる視点から、従来の所有権論における資源配置状態の固定性を乗り越え、より実践的かつ民主的な租税再分配の理論的根拠を提示することを目指した。
今日、租税は公共目的のための歳入として理解されているが、このような理解は歴史的にみれば近代以降に確立したものである。封建期において租税は領主への地代的給付として機能していたが、近代以降は、国家が自ら財産を持たない無産国家として、戦争や天災など「共同的危機」に対応するための財源として租税が制度化された。こうして租税は恒常的財源として制度化され、公共福祉や社会政策への用途が拡張された。その結果、政府規模は拡大し、個人の自由や所有権との間に新たな緊張関係が生まれることとなった。このように、租税による再分配は可能ではあるものの、その限界および正当化根拠はなお明確化される必要がある。
納税義務に関する理論は大きく二つに大別される。第一に、利益説において租税は、国家が社会契約に基づいて固有権の保障への対価として理解される。利益説では、租税は受益に応じた対価とされるため、比例税や定額税が正当化される傾向にある。しかし、生命の保障を超えるような水準の再分配を利益説から正当化することは困難である。そもそも利益説は、社会契約への同意の実効性や同意欠如の問題を含め、その基礎的前提が十分に説明されていないとの批判を受けている。第二に、義務説において租税は、市民が国家の存続と発展に対する義務を履行するための手段と位置づけられ、累進課税もその枠組みの下で正当化される。こうした市民義務に基づけば、国家の道徳的地位を高め、再分配を含む広汎な公共支出を正当化することが可能となる。しかし、国家が普遍的平等の促進義務を負う根拠を改めて問うと、その説明は循環論法に陥らざるを得ない。
両説は租税の基礎を一定程度説明しているものの、再分配の範囲と限界を規定するための規範的基準を欠如している。というのも、両説に依拠する所有権論は、一方がモノ的側面に、他方が人的側面に偏るという理論的偏向を内包しているからである。ロックの所有権論は、労働による価値創造を人間の使命とし、個人の最低限の生存保障を超える積極的再分配を正当化する理論的根拠は乏しい。一方でヘーゲルの所有権論は、人格の自己実現を所有権の目的とするため、最低限の生存権を超える積極的再分配を肯定しうる。しかし、モノいわゆる資源は本質的に有限であり、その現実の制約を無視した再分配を構想することは理論的にはともかく、実践的には成立し得ない。
以上の点を踏まえると、スタイナーの権利論における「権利の共存可能性」は両説の限界を補う理論的手がかりとして位置づけられる。スタイナーは、各個人に排他的領域（exclusive domain）が割り当てられ、それらが相互に干渉せず並立しうることを権利実現の条件でと捉える。また、権利の行使には一定の資源が不可欠である以上、必要資源を確保できない場合、その権利は実質的に実現されず、保護の欠如または権利侵害の状態に陥る。スタイナー権利論の意義は、権利の成立条件を資源配分という現実的制約に結び付けて論じた点にある。このように、租税による再分配を論じる際には、その実現可能性を正当化の重要な構成要素として位置づけなければならない。
スタイナー権利論は現実的な条件を取り込んでいるものの、資源の有限性については依然として検討が不十分である。そこで本稿は、再分配の妥当性を検討する際の三つの基準を提示することを試みる。第一は資源の希少性である。食料や居住用地など不可欠かつ有限な資源は再分配の優先度が高い。第二は資源の代替可能性である。ある権利の実現に代替的資源が確保可能であるならば、当該権利のための再分配の必要性は相対的に低減する。第三は権利の性質である。例えば、人としての尊厳ある生存を維持するために最低限の権利については、再分配の必要性が高く、その性質いかんによっては国家の再分配義務を構成しうる。
こうした「尊厳ある生存権」、「最低限の権利」の範囲は、時代や風土により共同体間で異なりうるものの、当該共同体内においてはその範囲が構成員に等しく帰属する。さらに、その範囲を決定するプロセスは民主的かつ平等的でなければならず、本稿ではこれを「手続的価値の共有（sharing of procedural values）」と呼ぶ。これは単なる形式的民主主義にとどまらず、すべての構成員が等しく参加し意思表明を行うための実質的条件を要求する概念である。このプロセスこそが納税義務正当化の核心であり、再分配目的の租税もまた、このプロセスを経て初めて正当化される。また、租税による再分配が個々人の参加能力を向上させるのであれば、その再分配は手続的平等を支える機能を果たしうる。このように、本稿は、個人がモノ・資源配分の過程においてより能動的になる視点から、従来の所有権論における資源配置状態の固定性を乗り越え、より実践的かつ民主的な租税再分配の理論的根拠を提示することを目指した。
The influence of Literary Sinitic translations of Buddhist scriptures on the semantics of Japanese vocabulary: Focusing on the influence of bonnō on nayamu and nayamasu
Hirotaka CHEN
This presentation examines the historical semantic development of the Japanese native words nayamu and nayamasu, with particular attention to how their meanings and usages shifted through contact with the imported Buddhist concept bonnō. The presentation is organized into four sections: research background, research methodology, survey results, and conclusion.
After outlining the background and presenting the central research questions, the study explains its methodological approach, which integrates both diachronic and synchronic investigation. These approaches are grounded in the collection and analysis of textual examples drawn from a specially compiled corpus.
The findings section reports the results obtained from major groups of sources, including Kana-written materials, Chinese-translated Buddhist scriptures materials, and Kunten materials. By comparing sources from different genres produced in the same historical period, the study seeks to clarify the interrelationships among the lexical items under examination. It also traces the semantic developments of nayamu and nayamasu within the internal history of Japanese, demonstrating how their meanings expanded, shifted, and were reinterpreted.
Finally, the analysis synthesizes these results to clarify the process by which the core meaning of nayamu changed from “to be unable to manage” to “to brood over or circulate various thoughts in one’s mind.” The study argues that this semantic shift was indirectly influenced by the conceptual domain associated with the loanword bonnō. By elucidating this process, the presentation highlights the role of external religious concepts in shaping the semantic evolution of native Japanese vocabulary and provides insight into the mechanisms of lexical change triggered by cultural and conceptual contact.
Jiehua XU
This presentation focuses on the early thought of Yanagi Sōetsu, a modern Japanese philosopher and religionist. It explores the structure and main features of his thought by analyzing the image of the “individual” as a key to understanding the starting point of his ideas.
In his first book, Science and Life, Yanagi writes that “All life’s problems spring from human nature; religion and philosophy have always centered on it”. He placed the inner power of human beings at the center of his intellectual pursuit. In this book, he introduces modern research on supernatural phenomena and physiology, and through these studies he became convinced that each human being holds infinite potential within. This pursuit in inner potential later developed into his exploration of inner“personality(jingaku)” or “individuality(kosei)” in his theories on art and religion.
In his art theory, Yanagi treated artistic value as an expression of personality. He believed that true artistic power appears when the artist’s personality becomes full—when the artist experiences the reality. By linking personality to reality, he gave it a special authority.
In his religious theory, Yanagi viewed individuality as a share of divinity. Based on the idea that God created all things, he argued that the creation of truth by individual personality also has a firm foundation.
Through an examination of Yanagi’s early works , this presentation explores how his focus on the inner life of human beings connects the fields of science, art, and religion.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance Problem and Chinese Nationalism: The Response of the British Foreign Office
Shogo BAMBA
This report analyzes the background of the abolition of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, focusing on Chinese nationalism and the response of the British Foreign Office, which have received little attention thus far.
Although it has already been pointed out that China opposed the continuance of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the extent to which Chinese public opinion influenced British foreign policy has not been revealed. This is because the international impact of Chinese nationalism, prior to the May Thirtieth Movement in 1925, has been underestimated.
In addition, regarding the abolition of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, previous studies have focused on political, diplomatic, and military perspectives. On the other hand, there is almost no analysis from a socio-economic approach.
However, this report reveals that the potential threat of an anti-British boycott, driven by the rise of Chinese nationalism, was a significant factor. In other words, the crisis of British trade in China influenced British policy toward the Anglo-Japanese Alliance during 1920-1921, just prior to the Washington Conference.
Some private organizations in China announced strong opposition to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In addition, the British Chambers of Commerce in China started to warn of the potential threat of an anti-British boycott.
Consequently, in 1921, the British Foreign Office desired dissolution of the alliance radically because there was a possibility that the anti-Japanese boycott in China would develop into an anti-British boycott.
In June 1921, opposing public opinion in China became stronger, and the threat of an anti-British boycott began to become a reality. In this situation, the House of Commons and the Asiatic Petroleum Company (British enterprise in China) criticized the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, fearing an anti-British boycott. Consequently, George Curzon (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs) was also compelled to approve the dissolution of the alliance.
Although it has already been pointed out that China opposed the continuance of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the extent to which Chinese public opinion influenced British foreign policy has not been revealed. This is because the international impact of Chinese nationalism, prior to the May Thirtieth Movement in 1925, has been underestimated.
In addition, regarding the abolition of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, previous studies have focused on political, diplomatic, and military perspectives. On the other hand, there is almost no analysis from a socio-economic approach.
However, this report reveals that the potential threat of an anti-British boycott, driven by the rise of Chinese nationalism, was a significant factor. In other words, the crisis of British trade in China influenced British policy toward the Anglo-Japanese Alliance during 1920-1921, just prior to the Washington Conference.
Some private organizations in China announced strong opposition to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In addition, the British Chambers of Commerce in China started to warn of the potential threat of an anti-British boycott.
Consequently, in 1921, the British Foreign Office desired dissolution of the alliance radically because there was a possibility that the anti-Japanese boycott in China would develop into an anti-British boycott.
In June 1921, opposing public opinion in China became stronger, and the threat of an anti-British boycott began to become a reality. In this situation, the House of Commons and the Asiatic Petroleum Company (British enterprise in China) criticized the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, fearing an anti-British boycott. Consequently, George Curzon (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs) was also compelled to approve the dissolution of the alliance.
How do they deal with the “Place of remain”? －the Case of Japanese “Natural Burial” Ground Scattering－
Yunshan Xue
This presentation describes a case about the ground-scattering conducted by the “GFPS: Grave-Free Promotion Society” to examine how “places of remains” are shaped, maintained, and used within Japanese natural burial methods, for analyze the mutual interaction with practitioners’ ideals and practices.
The “Forest of Regeneration” of the Tohoku branch of the GFPS, which serves as the case in this presentation, was originally a land for building a vacation house, so it includes a house with electricity and well water, as well as a garden-like open space. The former owner also planted many fruit trees outside the garden. For these reasons, the site has become not only a “place of remains” but also the place where caretakers can live in for long periods to manage the site and where gatherings can be held. This is reflected in the ways the Forest of Regeneration is maintained and in the practices of ground-scattering. About the influence of “nature”, plants such as fruit trees and bamboo shoots serve as mediators that materialize the ideal of “returning the remains to nature”, but on the other hand they also attract wild animals and thereby hinder activities. To ensure that activities proceed smoothly and to preserve the landscape as the “place of remains”, the GFPS members have to deal with this “material nature” in their maintenance work and in the practice of scattering. In addition, practitioners hold customary ideas concerning “places of remains”, which are expressed both in their attachment to the Forest of Regeneration and in their desire to “rest in the same place with the beloved relatives”.
The “Forest of Regeneration” of the Tohoku branch of the GFPS, which serves as the case in this presentation, was originally a land for building a vacation house, so it includes a house with electricity and well water, as well as a garden-like open space. The former owner also planted many fruit trees outside the garden. For these reasons, the site has become not only a “place of remains” but also the place where caretakers can live in for long periods to manage the site and where gatherings can be held. This is reflected in the ways the Forest of Regeneration is maintained and in the practices of ground-scattering. About the influence of “nature”, plants such as fruit trees and bamboo shoots serve as mediators that materialize the ideal of “returning the remains to nature”, but on the other hand they also attract wild animals and thereby hinder activities. To ensure that activities proceed smoothly and to preserve the landscape as the “place of remains”, the GFPS members have to deal with this “material nature” in their maintenance work and in the practice of scattering. In addition, practitioners hold customary ideas concerning “places of remains”, which are expressed both in their attachment to the Forest of Regeneration and in their desire to “rest in the same place with the beloved relatives”.
The Reception of Opera Seria in Tiepolo’s Ascent of Mount Calvary: A Focus on Composition, Christ’s Gesture, and His Expression of Sorrow
Momoka Shibata
The painting depicts Christ bearing the Cross on the road to Calvary. The surrounding crowd directs its gaze toward Christ, guiding the viewer’s eye to his figure at the center foreground. Christ has fallen, extending his left hand toward the viewer, his eyes closed and his face marked by sorrow. This viewer-oriented composition, together with his gesture and the illumination accentuating his sorrowful expression, produces a theatrical effect that renders Christ akin to an actor on stage.
Previous research notes the influence of sixteenth-century Venetian painting, particularly Tintoretto’s treatments of the theme on Tiepolo’s work (Levey 1986; Pedrocco 2002). However, comparison reveals substantial differences pointing to Tiepolo’s own intentions. Although scholars have remarked on the scene’s theatricality (Levey 1986; Pignatti 1993), they have not clarified which elements are theatrical or how they connect to contemporary performance culture.
This presentation examines the relationship between the painting and eighteenth-century performance culture through three approaches. First, an iconographic analysis compares Tiepolo’s composition with examples from the fourteenth century onward, identifying its distinctive features. Second, theater studies are used to reconstruct the theatrical environment of eighteenth-century Venice, with particular attention to the prominence of sorrowful expression in opera seria. Third, the presentation considers how devotion to Christ’s Passion had long been mediated through theatrical practices. Through these inquiries, I suggest that Tiepolo may have adopted the emotional strategies of opera seria to elicit empathy or emotional arousal from the viewer.
Yucheng Wang
In English, the distinction between count nouns and mass nouns is grammatically marked, whereas in classifier languages such as Japanese and Chinese, countability is not overtly marked morphologically. However, previous research has shown that numeral classifiers affect native speakers’ ontological appreciation of physical entities (as objects vs. substances), and that there are two types of classifiers—sortal classifiers and mass classifiers—that behave differently in terms of their grammatical properties. In an event-related potential study that examined whether native speakers of Japanese process the count–mass distinction syntactically or semantically, N400 effects were observed for mismatches between nouns and classifiers regardless of whether the mismatch crossed the ontological boundary between objects and substances. It was concluded that, in Japanese, the ontological distinction between objects and substances is represented at a lexical–semantic level. However, these studies used only the “Noun + Classifier” word order, leaving it unclear whether word order modulates the processing of countability at the level of classifier phrases.
The present study investigates how countability is processed in Japanese classifier phrases with the “Classifier + Noun” word order. Native speakers of Japanese viewed visually presented classifier–noun phrases while their electroencephalogram was recorded, and immediately afterward judged whether the just-presented combination was natural. The stimuli consisted of three types of classifier–noun pairs—matched, within-count/mass-category violations, and across-count/mass-category violations—presented in separate blocks for sortal classifiers and mass classifiers.
In this presentation, we present only the behavioral results. Although there was no significant difference in reaction times between the within-count/mass-category and across-count/mass-category violation conditions, reaction times in the sortal classifier block were significantly longer than those in the mass classifier block, which suggests that, in the “Classifier + Noun” word order, native speakers of Japanese experience a higher processing load for sortal classifiers than for mass classifiers.
Satoshi KIKUMOTO
This presentation attempts to provide a theoretical foundation for practical research in pedagogy by reconstructing Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology.
As a background to this study, phenomenology has become a primary approach in educational and childcare research to capture "children's experiences." However, a fundamental aporia remains often overlooked: Is it truly possible for an adult researcher, possessing a "Ego," to understand and describe the experience of a child whose consciousness of "self" is yet undifferentiated? Therefore, the question arises: on what grounds do mere "empathy" or "observation" constitute an elucidation of experience from the child's perspective?
In response to this problem, this presentation first demonstrates logically that understanding a child is impossible within the "Egology" found in traditional Husserlian phenomenology. Subsequently, by bridging Merleau-Ponty’s concept of "facticity" with insights from modern analytic philosophy (specifically Sydney Shoemaker), it presents a new model of understanding others that does not presuppose an Ego. Here, Merleau-Ponty’s analysis of "hallucination" is interpreted as an analogy for the educator-child relationship, thereby highlighting that the true reality exists precisely at the "intersection" where the differing worlds of the self and the other collide.
In conclusion, while pedagogy often falls into a binary opposition between "objective observation" and "subjective empathy," this presentation offers practical implications by proposing a "third way": engagement as intersection.